Europe Grapples with Unrest: Why Governments Struggle to Address Widespread Protests

Demonstrations across Europe show no sign of abating, subsiding only to flare up days later. Largely driven by young people, these protests have swept across at least eight European countries, fueled by grievances ranging from school conditions and the cost of diesel to a deeper sense of insecurity about the future and the feeling that opportunities are increasingly out of reach.

"They are plural and uncoordinated, with no single leader or programme," said Alberto Alemanno, professor of European Union law and policy at HEC Paris Business School. "So it’s less a rejection of one policy and more a signal that people no longer trust the system to deliver. That’s why they are so critical."

For governments, addressing this discontent is proving difficult. Experts suggest there is no easy fix, and many have so far struggled to offer answers beyond a show of force, warning that the protests are likely to continue. "Where there has been a reaction, the focus is on public order and security," Alemanno noted. "Part of the reason is that, like any popular protest, these movements include or attract small violent minorities. They dominate the headlines and risk undermining legitimate claims."

Rallies persist because they are increasingly about more than individual grievances, according to Donatella della Porta, a political science professor at the Scuola Normale Superiore in Florence. While governments have attempted to address some material demands, they have failed to grasp the broader political concerns driving the demonstrations.

"At this point, protests are no longer just about investing more in the school system. There are also fundamental issues, including military spending, governments’ alliance with [United States President Donald] Trump, the rising cost of gasoline and the war in Iran," she said. "The issue of Palestine is also very central to these protests."

This week, protesters continued to blockade several high schools and universities in France, advocating for better conditions, more teachers, and the replacement of Parcoursup, an admission system some deem discriminatory. In Germany, metal and electrical workers have gone on strike, while students have demonstrated over fears of the return of conscription. Firefighters marched through Brussels, Belgium, demanding more staff and better equipment. In Italy, the USB union brought tens of thousands of people together on Friday, calling for a reduction in military spending.

Critical, Yet Hard to Resolve

France’s Education Minister Edouard Geffray stated on Monday that some measures to meet students’ demands have been adopted, including capping class sizes to 28 for the first year of high school, creating 10,000 places in higher technician programmes, and transforming Parcoursup. Other measures require in-depth work before the end of December, he announced on X. However, these announcements have not quelled the protests; on Tuesday, dozens of schools remained blockaded and several universities were disrupted, according to French media. A nationwide strike over wages, the cost of living, and public services is anticipated on November 5.

In Spain, massive protests have occurred for weeks over a housing crisis, triggered by the eviction and subsequent death of an 87-year-old pensioner from her home. On Tuesday, police dismantled a sprawling tent camp in Madrid’s Puerta del Sol square. Officials reported the eviction occurred overnight "without incident or episodes of violence," with 334 people removed and two arrested. Protest organisers, however, lamented "a violent police operation" on Telegram, claiming several people were injured.

The Spanish government has approved new housing measures, including rent increase limits and temporary eviction protections for some vulnerable tenants. Despite this, protesters planning a general strike over housing rights and the cost of living on November 11 remain undeterred.

In Italy, following violent incidents during protests two weeks prior, the government led by Giorgia Meloni tightened security measures. "Violent participation" in a demonstration—defined as joining a group of five or more people and throwing stones, firecrackers, or sticks—was criminalized, carrying potential penalties of up to five years in prison and a fine of up to 20,000 euros ($22,500). Italy also made parents liable for damages caused by their children and implemented a policy of preventive detention for minors.

The increasing focus on public order has raised concerns among human rights organisations, which warn that European governments risk treating social discontent as a security threat rather than addressing the underlying grievances. In an October statement, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Volker Turk expressed serious concerns regarding state responses to protests across Europe and the excessive use of force against protesters, including children. Following the use of tear gas and stun grenades by French police against young protesters, Human Rights Watch urged the government to "listen to the demands of young people on the streets."

Della Porta suggested that governments risk further alienating protesters by responding primarily through policing and repression. "They can start by doing concrete things, such as recognising the right to protest and not sending police in a counterinsurgency-style approach to repress students," she advised.

Several European governments face significant fiscal constraints while simultaneously increasing defence spending and investing in security. They are now tasked with responding to demands for better public services, affordable housing, and higher living standards amidst increasingly stretched budgets. These fiscal pressures are particularly evident in some of Europe’s largest economies. Italy’s public debt is projected to reach 138.5 percent of GDP by 2026, limiting its capacity for additional spending. France faces a more immediate budgetary squeeze, with its deficit forecast at 5.4 percent of GDP, exceeding the EU’s 3 percent limit. Spain has struggled to secure parliamentary approval for a new budget, forcing the government to extend its 2023 spending plans. These pressures coincide with governments aiming to increase defence spending while citizens demand greater investment in housing, education, and public services. Alberto Alemanno stated there are no easy options, and "money is only part of the answer." "People will tolerate hard trade-offs if they are explained and if citizens have a say in them. Ignoring them is what fuels anger."