India's History Forged by Dissent: From Anti-Hindi Agitations to Farm Law Protests

Central New Delhi has recently seen a massive deployment of armed personnel, as authorities attempt to manage thousands of young protesters demanding the resignation of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and struggling to find space for sit-ins. For the past week, student organizations and a broad spectrum of opposition parties have been engaged in a strategic standoff, with tens of thousands participating on Monday, significantly outnumbering police forces. The protesters are calling for extensive reforms and the resignation of CEC Gyanesh Kumar following revelations of electoral irregularities. This movement represents the latest challenge to Prime Minister Narendra Modi's administration, coming less than three months after his education minister was compelled to resign by the same group of demonstrators. The Modi government has attempted to characterize the protesters as acting against national interests, aiming to impede India's progress or even facilitate its disintegration. However, India, the world's most populous nation, possesses a rich history of street protests, dating back to its struggle for independence from the British Empire and continuing through numerous movements during the 79 years of the Indian republic that have fundamentally shaped its contemporary identity. Political analyst Rasheed Kidwai noted, "Time and again the government [of the day] has opposed these protests, [and] at times engaged with them critically. But protests have run centrally through India’s story all along." The following is an overview of significant street protests in India and their impact on powerful governments and leaders.

Anti-Hindi Agitations (1965)

India's constitution, established shortly before independence, stipulated that Hindi would replace English as the official language of the central government after a 15-year transition period, concluding on January 26, 1965. Many in southern India, particularly Tamil speakers in the then Madras state (now Tamil Nadu), feared this transition would disadvantage them in government employment, civil service examinations, and interactions with the central administration. While the federal government viewed a single official language as a unifying tool for a diverse nation, many older societies within the Indian Union perceived it as a threat of cultural dominance by the Hindi-speaking north. Demonstrations against the imposition of Hindi, led by student organizations, erupted and frequently led to confrontations with the police. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a regional party advocating Tamil nationalism, under the leadership of CN Annadurai and M Karunanidhi, spearheaded these protests. In January 1965, Annadurai was arrested just before an anti-Hindi agitation began. Two young supporters died by self-immolation, and Hindi books were burned. Then-Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri assured protesters that English would continue to be used alongside Hindi. The DMK subsequently won the Tamil Nadu state election in 1967, ending the long-standing rule of the Congress party in the state. This event was a pivotal moment for Indian federalism and regional identity in a nascent nation. English remains one of India's two official languages, and the Congress party has never regained power in Tamil Nadu independently.

The JP Movement (mid-1970s)

The JP Movement, named after its socialist leader Jayaprakash Narayan, originated from student protests in Gujarat and Bihar in 1973-74 against corruption, inflation, and governmental mismanagement. It rapidly evolved into a nationwide challenge to the dominance of then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her Congress government. Students, civil society groups, trade unions, and opposition parties soon joined the movement. Narayan's call for "Sampoorn Kranti," or "Total Revolution," remains a resonant slogan in India. The movement contributed to the declaration of a national emergency by Gandhi on June 25, 1975, which suspended civil liberties and imposed press censorship. Following the end of the emergency, opposition parties united to defeat the Congress in the 1977 general election, ending Gandhi's continuous tenure and establishing India's first non-Congress government. Although the "Total Revolution" did not fully materialize as Narayan envisioned, the movement profoundly reshaped opposition politics, demonstrating that no leader was immune to the electoral consequences of mass dissent. Many leaders who emerged from this movement later became chief ministers and prominent federal ministers.

Mandal Commission Protests (early 1990s)

In August 1990, Prime Minister Vishwanath Pratap Singh announced the implementation of recommendations from a panel established over a decade earlier. The Mandal Commission proposed reserving 27 percent of central government jobs for individuals from Other Backward Classes (OBCs), communities identified as socially and educationally disadvantaged. This decision sparked widespread protests against reservations, primarily from students of privileged castes who feared diminished access to government employment. Supporters of the reservations argued for the necessity of affirmative action to address deep-seated caste discrimination and unequal opportunities, while opponents emphasized merit. During these protests, over 100 students attempted suicide by self-immolation, with more than 60 succeeding. In 1992, the Supreme Court upheld the 27 percent OBC reservation for central government jobs, with an exclusion for the financially better-off "creamy layer" within these communities.

Protests Against Liberalisation, Globalisation (early 1990s)

These protests were not a unified campaign but rather a series of labour actions and strikes against India's economic reforms initiated in 1991 under Prime Minister PV Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh. The reforms aimed to reduce restrictions on private enterprise and increase foreign investment. Trade unions expressed concerns that privatization and easier business closures would lead to job losses, weaken collective bargaining power, and erode worker protections. Left-aligned political parties largely supported these protests, but they could not halt the reform program. Subsequent governments have continued to expand private sector involvement, pursue disinvestment in state-owned enterprises, and modify labor regulations.

Anna Hazare's Anticorruption Movement (2011)

This movement gained momentum amidst public outrage over significant corruption scandals involving the Congress-led coalition government, including issues related to the 2G spectrum licensing and the 2010 Commonwealth Games preparations. Activists demanded a robust law establishing an independent anticorruption ombudsman with the authority to investigate and prosecute corruption involving public officials. Social activist Anna Hazare led the movement, employing hunger strikes and involving prominent activists such as Arvind Kejriwal, Kiran Bedi, and Prashant Bhushan. The demonstrations drew large crowds nationwide. Parliament passed a law in December 2013, creating a statutory framework for an anticorruption watchdog, though its impact has been minimal over a decade later. The movement faced internal divisions regarding whether activists should enter electoral politics. Arvind Kejriwal departed to found the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) in 2012, eventually becoming a two-time Chief Minister of Delhi. The movement's legacy is largely overshadowed by Kejriwal's current political career, as he now leads the opposition following the Bharatiya Janata Party's (BJP) victory in the Delhi state election.

Protests Following the 'Nirbhaya' Gang Rape (2012)

On December 16, 2012, a 23-year-old paramedical student was brutally gang-raped and assaulted on a moving bus in New Delhi. She succumbed to her injuries on December 29. Indian law prohibits the public naming of sexual assault victims, leading to her being widely referred to as "Nirbhaya," meaning "fearless" in Hindi. The crime ignited widespread protests against sexual violence, unsafe public spaces, inadequate policing, and the treatment of women in the country. Protesters demanded justice for the victim and fundamental changes in how authorities handled sexual assault cases. Students, young people, women's rights activists, and ordinary citizens mobilized in Delhi, particularly around India Gate and other key locations. Four adult defendants were convicted and sentenced to death, with their executions occurring in 2020. Parliament passed the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013, which expanded the legal definition of sexual offenses, criminalized acts like stalking and voyeurism, and increased penalties for various crimes. Activists continue to argue that stronger legislation alone cannot resolve deep-rooted misogyny and policing deficiencies, and crimes against women, including sexual offenses, remain prevalent across India.

Anti-CAA Protests (2019-20)

India's Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), enacted in December 2019, provides a streamlined path to Indian citizenship for migrants from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan belonging to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian faiths who arrived before December 31, 2014. Muslims were excluded from this provision. Critics contended that basing expedited citizenship on religious identity contravened India's secular constitutional principles. Millions feared that the law, in conjunction with a proposed National Register of Citizens (NRC), could increase the risk of exclusion and potential expulsion for Muslims in India. The movement was decentralized, with students from Jamia Millia Islamia and Aligarh Muslim University leading significant demonstrations. Women-led sit-ins, notably at Shaheen Bagh in Delhi, became national symbols of resistance against Prime Minister Modi's Hindu majoritarian politics. In February 2020, large-scale mob violence, primarily targeting Muslims, erupted in northeastern Delhi, resulting in over 50 deaths. The Shaheen Bagh sit-in persisted for 101 days before police cleared the site on March 24, 2020, shortly after the imposition of the COVID-19 lockdown. Numerous Muslim activists were arrested and charged under antiterrorism laws. Student leaders such as Umar Khalid and Sharjeel Imam remain incarcerated without trial. While the protests did not achieve a repeal of the law, they delayed its implementation. The government officially notified its implementation in March 2024.

Farmers' Protests (2020-21)

In 2020, the Modi government introduced three agricultural laws aimed at liberalizing farm markets and facilitating direct sales to private buyers. Many farmers, particularly in northern India, feared these changes would weaken the government-regulated wholesale markets, which handled a significant portion of their produce. They also worried that the reforms would undermine the Minimum Support Price (MSP), a government-guaranteed price for certain crops. Numerous farmer unions, coordinated under the Samyukt Kisan Morcha coalition, blockaded roads leading to Delhi. Thousands of farmers camped on the outskirts of Delhi for months. Over 700 farmers died due to harsh weather, accidents, suicides, and clashes. In November 2021, Prime Minister Modi announced the repeal of the laws. This marked a significant instance where protesters successfully compelled a major concession from Modi, who had cultivated an image as an unyielding leader.

'Cockroach' Protests (2026)

This movement emerged as a response to remarks by India's Chief Justice Surya Kant, who reportedly equated unemployed youth with "cockroaches" and "parasites," sparking outrage amidst a decade of declining democratic indices. Student Abhijeet Dipke amplified this sentiment by forming a pressure group, the Cockroach Janta Party (CJP), and leading protests against irregularities in the national medical school entrance examination. The CJP movement, supported by left-wing student organizations, disrupted activities on Parliament Street and at the Jantar Mantar protest site in New Delhi. These Gen Z-led protests ultimately led to the resignation of Education Minister Dharmendra Pradhan in July 2026. The CJP protesters have since regrouped, alongside opposition parties, to demand the resignation of CEC Kumar.